Ice cores contain an abundance of information about climate and the changes it is undergoing. Brett Paull and Estrella Sanz Rodriguez from the Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science (ACROSS) at the University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia, spoke to Kate Mosford of The Column about their work on the analysis of Antarctic ice cores and the important role of capillary ion chromatography (cap-IC) in this area of research.

Q. In 2015, your group published a study on the analysis of Antarctic ice cores using capillary ion chromatography (IC).

 What led your group to begin this study?

Within our Centre, the Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science (ACROSS), we have a long history of collaboration with national and international groups on fundamental and applied projects. As we are based within Hobart, Tasmania, which is now Australia’s hub location for Antarctic research, we have a history of collaborative projects with both the University’s Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies (IMAS) and the Australian Antarctic Division (AAD), specifically on the application of ion chromatography (IC) to Antarctic seawater and freshwater samples. In this current study, the problem of analysis of low volume, high value ice-core samples was put to us, and our immediate solution was to move down to capillary format ion chromatography (cap-IC). Standard IC provides the selectivity required for the ions of interest within these samples, and our collaborators have long been using the technique as the “gold standard” method for trace anions in such samples.

 However, we were aware from former research projects within ACROSS that the selectivity of standard IC columns is very well matched with that available using capillary formats,

 and so were confident we could reproduce the desired chromatograms using the smaller column format, and achieve this whilst requiring much smaller sample volumes.	 	

Q. What is the importance of your research?

The wider significance of this whole area is of course related to environmental and climatic change and the ability to develop accurate longer-term historical data sets (based upon the measurement of established climate change proxies) from sources such as ice cores. Currently, there is a clear demand for ever-greater temporal resolution from the scientists modelling ice core data. However, the nature of the sample itself is such that greater temporal resolution can only be achieved through increased sample analysis per ice core unit volume. In this study our main objective was to develop the analytical capability to move our temporal resolution from yearly cycles, down to seasonal and potentially monthly data. 	 	

 Using cap-IC to replace former standard format IC methods enabled us to not only reduce the sample volumes required per analysis, without compromising on detection limits for target ions, but also allowed sample analysis to be performed in triplicate, providing greater analytical confidence in our data. Given the rarity and costs of these samples, even duplicate analysis has historically been an often-ignored luxury. However, the move to capillary format has enabled routine triplicate analysis of each sample to be performed, whilst still requiring smaller sample volumes (< 1 mL) than previous methods. 	 	

Q. What can capillary IC offer that other analytical techniques cannot? 

In this particular application, the enormous costs associated with collection of ice cores (particularly from Antarctica), together with the high demand from partner laboratories for such samples, essentially meant that more samples were needed from smaller core volumes. In addition, their subsequent analysis had to be performed without compromising analytical performance, and specifically target ion limits of detection (LODs). The only solution to this problem was a move to capillary format. Cap-IC can match standard format IC in each of the important chromatographic parameters of selectivity, resolution, and efficiency, whilst also matching concentration sensitivity, albeit based upon approximately one tenth of the required sample volume. Other more general advantages of the capillary format include low eluent requirements, which could see the system left running continuously for days, or even weeks, whilst requiring less than a single litre of deionized water (electrolytic eluent generation). 	 	 	

Q. What challenges were associated with this application of IC?

Reaching the target ion LODs was a challenge because we were specifically interested in methane sulphonate concentrations. Former methods had applied off-column preconcentration techniques. This approach obviously increases sample volume requirements and method complexity, both of which we sought to avoid in this current study. We therefore investigated on-capillary focusing and large volume injection. This sounds like a contradiction given the above comments, but here we are talking in relative terms, and our “large volume” injection onto the start of our capillary column was just 40 L. With the application of a shallow elution gradient, our target ions were focused on the start of the capillary column prior to their separation, meaning that we could readily achieve our low g/L target LODs without resorting to off-column preconcentration. Of course, the nature of the sample helps us in this regard because we are essentially dealing with very pure water samples, with a very simple sample matrix, which enabled us to achieve a very focused band of ions within a small volume of stationary phase at the start of our capillary column.	
			 	 	

Q. Why have you chosen to study this location?

 In this current study the location was one that had already been well-studied using former IC methods. This enabled us to have direct historical data to compare with when developing our new methods. Currently, we are working on a larger sample set from alternative sites within Antarctica (in a collaborative project with Dr. Mark Curran of the Australian Antarctic Division). Sites are obviously chosen based upon specific investigations, which are often part of much larger multifaceted programmes. In the case of methane sulphonate, proximity to the coast and the regions of cycling sea ice are important because this ion is an established proxy for the annual growth and contraction of the sea ice, although as mentioned, within each core there may be multiple targets and related processes under investigation. A better record (by which we mean more temporal resolution and improved accuracy) of methane sulphonate concentrations within these samples can lead to a more reliable and detailed reconstruction of seasonal variations in the Antarctic sea ice, which is of course just one more piece of the puzzle in the great climate change debate. This work represents a very tiny link in one of the world’s most pressing scientific questions, and its long-term implications or significance are yet to be seen.	 	

Q. What challenges do you face in your field of research regarding analytical methodology?

In our field of research, as in most, our challenges are numerous. We are often looking at ultra-trace concentrations of a target species, in an often complex and potentially interfering sample matrix. At least with ice-core samples the latter is relatively simple. However, as with all analytical science problems, challenges can originate at the source, namely sample collection, handling, and storage. As analytical chemists we are very good at improving precision, accuracy, sensitivity, and selectivity; however, we often neglect the most important factors, namely the integrity of the sample. 

 analysis can provide some cover in this regard, but when the sample is taken from a remote frozen region of Antarctica, a whole new set of limitations and complications exist. An example of one such “complication” relates to national quarantine regulations. Australia has very tough quarantine rules, and even samples of what essentially amounts to very pure water are subject to such rules. Therefore, analysis has to be undertaken within laboratories with quarantine clearance for handling these samples, which in our case means relocation of the instrumentation itself. This means samples are not moved from the laboratory in which they were first prepared and stored, as anytime they are in transport could see important changes in sample integrity. Essentially, collaboration between groups is the key for studies such as these because it’s simply not possible to take on this type of investigation alone.	 	

We have recently been successful in attracting funding from the Ian Potter Foundation to expand this work further and develop IC coupled with mass spectrometry (IC–MS) for investigation of ice core samples, and the identification and quantification of a number of organic ions thought to be present. The exciting element of this work is the thought that unknown yet potentially important proxies may exist within these cores (which are essentially time capsules), which could lead to greater understanding, or more accurate models of how our environment has been changing over past millennia.  	 	 	

, 182–188 (2015).	2. M.A. Curran and A.S. Palmer, 

(1), 107–113 (2001).  	3. B.K. Ng, R.A. Shellie, G.W. Dicinoski, C. Bloomfield, Y. Liu, C.A. Pohl, and P.R. Haddad,

 is the Director of the Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science (ACROSS), at the University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia. Brett has been involved in analytical chemistry research for over 20 years, and was awarded his B.Sc, Ph.D., and D.Sc from the University of Plymouth in the UK. Brett’s broader research interests are based within the field of analytical and materials science, with specific interests in the development and application of ion chromatography and related techniques for pharmaceutical, biomedical, and environmental analysis. 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	

 obtained the degrees of B.Sc and Ph.D in analytical chemistry from the University Complutense of Madrid (Spain). She is currently a University Associate at the University of Tasmania and Post-doctoral fellow within ACROSS. She has over 18 years’ experience as an analytical chemist, with her research interests focused on the development of new analytical methods based on chromatographic techniques coupled to mass spectrometry. 

Articles

Feature

Analyzing Antarctic Ice Cores using Capillary Ion Chromatography

Analyzing Antarctic Ice Cores Using Capillary Ion Chromatography

	This week I visited the laboratory of an extraordinary innovator in science who holds many patents in the field of chromatography and who is credited with several key discoveries and developments in analytical science.

	It was fascinating to hear him talk a little about the various instruments and applications in which he and his group have innovated, and the process by which some of the discoveries and developments were made. It started me thinking about the qualities and attitudes that set him apart from others and what has enabled his group to be so innovative. What can his approach and characteristics teach us about developing better methods, troubleshooting problems more effectively, or being more innovative in the lab? Read on!

Being anonymous allows one more freedom to try “radical” things and not fear failure in the public glare. Being better known tends to mean one is deemed an expert and whilst you are less likely to be challenged, you may also be less exposed to new ideas and fresh thinking. Avoid being boxed in, always be open to a challenge, and never fear failure, no matter how much of an “expert” you are. Don’t be afraid to take a risk, to prove or disprove an idea, and try to maximize your exposure to chance occurrences through speculative experimentation or using new techniques and instruments. Ultimately, the more anonymous one is, the more freedom there is to experiment and make mistakes - without damaging your reputation. 

Embrace “The Three Princes of Serendip”: 

If you don’t know the story look it up, because it describes how these young brothers happened upon some remarkably lucky findings, all of which
	was aided by a rather large slice of intuition. Many advances and discoveries are fuelled by serendipity - actually, let’s call it for what it is - luck! However, one often finds that this luck originates from a stubborn determination to investigate unexpected observations or inconsistencies. Embrace the unusual and have the
	same enthusiasm for negative results as positive ones.

 Everyone loves the things that they build themselves and are usually highly protective of them. They have an emotional investment in them
	and will tend to ignore small faults or slightly lower quality. This is the way we tend to feel about our own ideas and data, but we should be quick to criticize and test, and not so ready to explain away unexpected results, concentrating instead on those results which reinforce our theories.

Whilst I’ve just encouraged you to be open-minded about your data, you also need to show resilience in the quest for your goal. There will be many experts and more experienced folks who are only too ready to decry your ideas or challenge your data or methods because they go against their own understanding or opinions. Be as dogged as you dare if you really believe in an idea, because every new idea, application, or process goes through a thousand deaths between the fringe and the mainstream. I’ve seen scientists at conferences, publically challenged, and seen a lot of younger scientists “mauled” by the old guard in public and on bulletin boards and forums. Great scientists pursue advancements with a resilience that is often mistaken for arrogance or singleâmindedness.

Enjoy Your Work and Realize it’s the Journey Not the Destination that Matters: 

To be successful you really need to enjoy what you are doing every day. Without enjoyment you will not have the love and dedication that you need to persevere when the going gets tough or when experiments and results are not going your way. You need to care about the why and the how, to understand things from the ground up. You need to be invested in your work and to be motivated by the desire to improve data quality, the way it is acquired, and the advancement of chromatography or analytical science in general.

	I’m not a hopeless idealist - obviously everyone has bad days or periods in their career where external factors cause us to be frustrated or demotivated. An inherent love of what you do will help you through these times.

	If your motivation is public recognition, accolades, or fame, that’s fine, but don’t forget to enjoy yourself along the way and be nice to those you work with. There will be plenty of opportunities for them to kick you as you fly past them on your fall from greatness!

Think about everything you do - analyze and be critical about every operation in the laboratory. If you don’t know or can’t explain then find out! Learn every day.

	Scientists who work in a quality control laboratory often think they should just follow recipes and not ask too many questions. They are often not encouraged to understand analyte chemistry or the effects of the various different matrices, yet the ones who can be bothered to learn enough (even independently) to better understand the methods, analytes, and underlying principles will progress through better insight, more effective troubleshooting, and ultimately to suggest new ways of doing things.

	Don’t ever take anything for granted and never accept that you don’t know something. If you don’t understand something don’t pretend you do. This is such a waste of a learning opportunity - admit when you don’t know - it’s the path to true enlightenment.

Learn to Love Communicating in Every Form:

 Some folks just really don’t like writing up. Some hate giving lectures or presentations and therefore also dislike writing presentations. Some don’t like protracted telephone conversations or even talking to others about their work. I have never met anyone who was highly successful who couldn’t effectively communicate via a number of channels. OK, not everyone is a great public speaker, but these people tend to excel in other areas of communications, writing great papers for example. You need to be able to communicate well in some form.

	I truly believe that one of the most crucial skills in a scientific career is to be able to ask the right questions and formulate new ideas based on the information you are given. If you can’t explain your challenges and issues then you won’t get answers to them. If you can’t tell people about what you do, then they can’t help you to do it better.

Build Strong Partnerships / Get a Mentor:

 Do you have a mentor? Someone from whom you can learn, no matter what level you are at or what specialism you are working in? If the answer is no, then one of two things is true. You are either the world’s leading expert in your discipline or you are not going to succeed in being a great scientist.

	You should be learning from others who know more than you all of the time. Make it your aim to hoover up as much relevant knowledge as you can and relate it to how you can improve your own work.

	How many learned societies do you belong to? How many networking groups? If the answer is none or only a few, then how can you expose yourself to new and radical ideas that are opposed to yours? You can only build your ideas and think outside the box when you are able to define the box, not only in your own terms but also in terms of all of those working in the same field as you.

 It’s so easy to get bogged down in detail, to get hung up on small difficulties. From time to time, write down what you are trying to achieve in a single sentence. The very act of having to compress your thinking into a single aim helps you to think big and can reveal the way forwards.

	Having someone unconnected but understanding audit your work can help enormously in getting an objective opinion on whether you are following the right track and staying on it. The very act of preparing for the audit will help you to focus on where your priorities should lie. The auditors’ feedback will validate what you have come to realize in your preparation and may help to highlight issues or ideas that have been hidden in plain sight.

 Every “no” is another step along the path to yes. “That’s not possible” or “That can’t be done’ should always be met with “How close have we come?” or “How might it be done?”

	Judicious obstinacy combined with informed insight is a constant combination in all of those people I have known who are considered to have been true pioneers in analytical science.

I dislike that hackneyed saying about scientific discovery being 5% inspiration and 95% perspiration, but I have to admit that the principle is true. If insight and inquisitiveness is combined with an outstanding work ethic then you will enjoy success.

	Notice I did not say inherent intelligence or a natural flair in chemistry. Talent is helpful but inherent genius is present in only a tiny proportion of the populace. There are many ways to measure success and the fact that you have been invested enough to read through to the end of this column shows that you have an interest in progression and success. The inventor I mentioned at the start is a great man but he freely admits that there is more to his success than innate intelligence. Put some of this advice into practice when you next enter the laboratory and be as great as you can be.

Cover Story

Could You be a Great Analytical Chemist?

The LCGC Awards have made their mark in chromatography history during the last eight years by honouring the work of iconic figures in the field as well as up-and-coming scientists (Table 1). In 2015, we had the opportunity to go a step further by honouring the award winners at an oral symposium as part of the Pittcon 2015 technical programme, featuring talks by both of the award winners and Mark R. Schure, Lloyd R. Snyder, and Terry A. Berger. The winners of the ninth annual LCGC awards were also honoured at Pittcon 2016. This year, LCGC North America is pleased to honour Milton L. Lee, the winner of the 2016 Lifetime Achievement in Chromatography Award.

	Milton L. Lee graduated from the University of Utah in 1971 with a B.A. in chemistry. From there, he went on to receive his Ph.D. in analytical chemistry in 1975 from Indiana University under the guidance of Milos V. Novotny.

	“I have been very fortunate to have many great graduate and postdoctoral students during my career,” said Novotny, now a Distinguished Professor Emeritus at Indiana University. “Milton was one of the best.” He was also Novotny’s first. Novotny explained that the two began their work together on several aspects of capillary chromatography and that Lee was “enormously helpful” in starting his research laboratory. Lee was also able to get his PhD in four years with a high number of publications, Novotny noted. “This was because he rapidly learned the experimental skills and knowledge of chromatography and became incredibly motivated and organized in his research,” said Novotny.

	After receiving his Ph.D., Lee briefly worked as a chemical engineering research associate at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology under Ronald A. Hites. In 1976, he took an assistant professor position in the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry at Brigham Young University (BYU) in Provo, Utah, a position he held until 1981. Lee was an associate professor at BYU from 1981 to 1984, and then in 1984 he became a full professor. In 1985, Lee was named the H. Tracy Hall Professor of Chemistry at BYU, which is his current position.

 Lee is known for a wide range of achievements. In addition to his research and teaching at BYU and his work advancing capillary chromatography, electrophoresis, and other techniques, Lee obtained 20 patents and successfully commercialized three instruments. He also founded three analytical instrument companies (Lee Scientific, Sensar, and Torion) as well as one journal (Journal of Microcolumn Separations). In addition, he has published more than 570 journal articles and given more than 500 presentations.

	We interviewed several of Lee’s colleagues, friends, and former students about his achievements, impact, and relationships. One common theme was that Lee’s abilities and work have been wideâranging, making it difficult to name a single greatest contribution to the field.

	“When you look back on Lee’s body of work in separations, he has continued to transform himself and his expertise,” said Mary Ellen P. McNally, a Technical Fellow at Dupont Crop Protection. She explained that Lee’s work focused on a wide range of techniques, including supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC), electric field gradient focusing of proteins, high-speed thermal gradient gas chromatography (GC), polymer monolithic column technology for liquid chromatography (LC), sampling and concentration of target organic compounds in air, thermochemolysis–methylation of microorganisms for the generation of characteristic biomarkers, toroidal ion trap mass spectrometry (MS), and fluidic sieving of nanoparticles.

	Former graduate school labmate and longâtime friend James Jorgenson, the Kenan Professor of Chemistry at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, agreed. “Lee has worked on so many divergent things, from analyzing tobacco smoke, SFC, and the design of mass spectrometers to monolithic LC columns, and the list goes on and on,” he said.

	“He is a giant in separation science with an endless list of accomplishments,” echoed Jim Luong, Associate Technology Director with the The Dow Chemical Company. “What is unique about Milton is that he is a scientist in motion - he continues to invent and to drive science forward!”

	Pat Sandra, an Emeritus Professor at the Research Institute for Chromatography, agreed that Lee has significantly contributed to many fields of separation science. “His portable analyzers are definitely some of the highlights of his achievements,” he added.

But it is not just Lee’s breadth that is remarkable. It is his ability to connect the diverse areas of his work. Lee’s research philosophy is unique in the way that fundamental chemistry, physics, biology, and mathematics are intertwined with the corresponding applied sciences and technology, noted one of Lee’s postdoctoral researchers, Karin Markides, now the senior advisor to the president and CEO of Chalmers University of Technology. “In this way, theory and practice meet in a most stimulating way to enhance the ability to sample, separate, and detect valuable chemical information,” she said. “His ability to spin out chemical instrumentation of high complexity to the market and at the same time continue as a leading researcher and teacher is an amazing achievement. The impact of his career is too large to measure.”

	Former student and colleague Bruce E. Richter, an R&D manager at Agilent Technologies, agreed that Lee is impressive in his ability to connect theory and practice. “While Lee understands the theories, his approach has always been to develop practical solutions for real problems,” he said. “Whether the technique was GC, SFC, LC, or capillary electrophoresis (CE), Lee helped to improve the ability of these techniques to solve real problems by providing new tools and insights that demonstrated higher levels of practicality and usability.”

	As an example, Richter cited Lee’s work to develop a better understanding of surface deactivation of fused-silica capillaries and then new and innovative stationary phases all for GC. “Lee has always pushed the envelope of separation science by looking at what problems existed and trying to develop ways of overcoming those problems,” he concluded.

	As a result, noted Edward Yeung, a Distinguished Professor Emeritus at Iowa State University, Lee has had a significant impact on separation science. “Lee’s work has not only conceptually changed separation science, but has also had a major influence on the users of separation science,” he said. “This is evident from the many patents that are derived from his work and the different companies that Lee founded to adapt his inventions to practical applications.”

	Lee’s influence on instrumentation goes beyond his specific developments, said Markides. “The significance that Lee always gave to the separation part of the analysis and [his insistence] that the column is the most important component of separations instrumentation has strongly influenced the way that instrument companies care for sample separation and transfer to detection,” she said. “This emphasis on separation has been crucial for the successful development of the whole area of microfluidic separations.”

	While Lee’s impact in the separations science community has been felt on the industry side, many consider his academic contributions to be his biggest legacy. “Lee spread his knowledge by training around 100 graduate students in his career,” said Pankaj Aggarwal, a senior scientist at Pfizer and a former graduate student of Lee’s.

	Another former student of Lee’s, Sheldon Sumpter, who is an operations and program manager at DuPont Crop Protection, agreed with Aggarwal. “Lee’s greatest contributions to the field of separation science are his graduate students and post docs,” he said.

	Luong also mentioned Lee’s contributions in academia. “Lee is an incredible educator and a lifelong learner himself,” he said.

	Jorgenson agreed. “I suppose in the end, as with many people working in universities, Lee’s greatest contribution will be all of the students he has introduced to the field of separations,” he said.

 Lee has also been very active with analytical chemistry journals. In addition to founding and editing the Journal of Microcolumn Separations, Lee has been on the editorial advisory boards of 12 different publications at various times during his career. Some of those include Chromatographia (1981–2006), LCGC (1985–1987), Journal of Supercritical Fluids (1988–1999), Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds (1989–2002), Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry (1999–2003), and Analytical Methods (2012–present).

	In addition, Lee has been involved with several scientific organizing committees over the years. From 1983 to present, Lee has been on the scientific organizing committee for the International Symposia on Capillary Chromatography. Lee was also on the scientific organizing committee for the International Symposia on Microcolumn Separations from 1987 to 1990, and the chairman of the organizing committee for the International Symposia on Supercritical Fluid Chromatography from 1987 to 1991. Finally, Lee was the chairman of the organizing committee for the International Symposia on Capillary Chromatography and Electrophoresis from 1995 to 2005. Lee is currently on the International Advisory Board of Mediterranean Separations Science Foundation Research and Training Center, which he joined in 2005.

 Over the course of his illustrious career, Lee has been the recipient of 35 awards. Some of those awards include the First Annual Governor’s Medal for Science and Technology, State of Utah (1987); the American Chemical Society (ACS) Award in Chromatography (1988); the Russian Tswett Chromatography Medal (1992); the Martin Gold Medal (1996); the Karl D. Maeser Distinguished Faculty Lecturer Award, BYU (1998); the Dal Nogare Award (1999); The California Separation Science Society (CASSS) Award for Distinguished Contributions to Separation Science (2005); the Pittsburgh Analytical Chemistry Award (2008); and the LCGC Europe Lifetime Achievement Award (2014).

As indicated earlier, Lee has played a significant role in the lives of a large number of students who have gone on to achieve great success in analytical chemistry and related fields. To date, Lee has mentored 62 PhD students, 26 post-doctoral researchers, and eight MS students.

	Markides said that Lee inspired his students, partly through his own passion to advance separation science. “Lee’s ability to continuously foster the forefront of basic and applied research mixed with a unique ability and interest to make students understand and strive for more knowledge is a true gift,” she said.

	Former PhD student Iuliana M. Lazar, an Associate Professor at Virginia Tech, echoed Markides’s sentiments. Lazar said that Lee had a relentless commitment to science and was extremely creative in providing solutions to difficult problems. “His patience, wisdom, and vision, were - and will continue to be - a source of inspiration throughout my entire career.”

	Aggarwal agreed. “The one statement from him that always kept me going was: The feeling you get upon discovering something new cannot be described in words,” he said. “He was absolutely correct about that and I was able to feel the same way while working in his laboratory.”

	That excitement of discovery, Lee also taught his students, requires hard work; Lee is described as being meticulous in his pursuit of excellence and asking the same from his students. Richter recalls some late nights working in Lee’s lab with fellow students when they would get a call from Lee to check in. “He wanted to know that we were putting in the time to be successful in our endeavours,” Richter explained. “He taught us that nature does not give up its secrets easily and for those who did not put in the extra work, it would be harder to find the answers.”

	Ray West, who was one of Lee’s early graduate students and is now the Director of Business Development at Moxtek, Inc., says he also learned to be a dedicated scientist from Lee “He taught us to work hard and had a cot in the lab so we could be there late in the night taking care of critical experiments,” he recalls. “I don’t think I could have had any better training in graduate school.”

	Doug Raynie, an Associate Research Professor at South Dakota State University and another former graduate student of Lee’s, agreed that Lee’s training prepares students to shine once they graduate. When a graduate school labmate went on to work at a leading chromatography supply company, he reported back to his friends that it was the easiest job he ever had. “You develop such a strong work ethic in Lee’s lab that when you go to work you think you’re slacking off, but everyone else is impressed by how hard you’re working,” Raynie told us.

	But Lee was not just tough; he was supportive, too. “While Professor Lee set the bar high for his students, he was a very generous and caring supervisor,” said former PhD student Naijun Wu, the Director of Analytical Research and Development at Celgene Corporation.

	Wu also mentioned Lee’s dedication to supporting his students at conferences. Wu recalled the 1999 International Symposium on Capillary Chromatography and Electrophoresis, where he was giving a talk as a student in the last session on the last day of the conference. “Prior to the session, Professor Lee asked his other five students attending the conference to show up to my talk,” Wu said. “Without his thoughtful support, I would have been talking to an audience of one,” Wu laughed.

 Lee’s mentorship abilities extend beyond his students. “I am grateful and indebted to Lee for his mentorship and support throughout my career as a scientist,” said Luong, who first met Lee at the International Symposium of Capillary Chromatography in 1995. Lee offered Luong his first opportunity to give a plenary lecture, at the International Symposium of Capillary Chromatography in 1997. “I became a better person and a more successful separation scientist because of mentors like Lee,” he said.

	Lee is also a very generous colleague, added Adam Woolley, a professor and the Associate Chair in the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry at BYU. “Lee has been both generous and instrumental in my career development in terms of helping me get connected with funding sources, securing invitations to present at conferences, and successfully nominating me for various awards,” he said.

	Woolley recounted a specific example of Lee’s collegiality. Lee became aware of a call for papers from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) to develop methods to test for bacterial infections. “This wasn’t an area where Lee was actively working, but he knew of several of us here at BYU who would be able to put together a strong proposal, so he got us together,” said Woolley. After the team was assembled, Lee told them his expertise was not needed and suggested they go ahead without him. “Lee was instrumental in helping us secure a five-year, multimillion dollar grant, even though he is not an investigator on it,” Woolley concluded.

 Many friends, colleagues, and past students described Lee as being very family-oriented. “More than once he was offered positions at higher-ranking universities with substantial financial incentives, but he turned them down because moving would mean suddenly putting his family in an unfamiliar place that would require a lengthy adjustment period,” said Yeung.

	Markides also felt the effect of Lee’s devotion to family when she was working for him. She explained that one morning before work her oldest son announced that he had to build a wooden car for a Scout competition the next day. Markides and her husband did not know how to get it done in one day, but she went to work because they were very busy in the lab at the time. When she got there, Lee could tell that something was bothering her so she told him about the car her son needed to build. “Lee did the most fantastic thing: he said that we needed to prioritize my son’s car and he called in some professors and graduate students to make a winning construction,” Markides said. “I have referred to this story many times in my life when talking about setting priorities.”

	Lee’s family orientation also extended to his students. “As his students, we felt like a big family - Lee would often host birthday parties for students and invite us to his home for Thanksgiving or Christmas,” said Wu. “He also organized group hikes for us in the beautiful areas around Provo.”

	Raynie recounted a funny story he heard related to Lee’s family. “Upon hearing his students call him ‘Dr. Lee’, one of his children didn’t believe he was a doctor, so Lee brought them into his lab so they could see him ‘give a shot’ (injection) to a chromatograph,” said Raynie.

 The friends, colleagues, and students we interviewed for this article all provided glowing praise for the type of person Lee is and what it is like to work with or for him. This year we also asked everyone to describe Lee’s personal character or work ethic in three words. A few examples of the responses we received include brilliant, innovative, honourable, loyal, curious, dedicated, tireless, and cooperative. The three words that came up most often were: integrity, reliable, and creative.

	Novotny expanded on the three words he chose. “Lee has high scientific standards and great organizational skills,” he said “He is a valuable and reliable scientific colleague.”

	Richter also said a bit more than just three words about Lee’s personal character and work ethic. “He seems to have unlimited energy and ideas that need developing. He is a man of integrity and loyalty,” said Richter. “He expects a lot from those that work for him, but he also provides an example of someone who is hard-working and dedicated to his field of endeavour.”

	Indeed, Lee certainly seems to exemplify a highly creative man with great integrity.

 is the Managing Editor of LCGC North America.

This year, LCGC North America is pleased to honour Milton L. Lee, the winner of the 2016 Lifetime Achievement in Chromatography Award.

The 2016 LCGC Awards: Part 1

	Dani Instruments SpA (Cologno Monzese, Italy) and Labindia Instruments Pvt Ltd (Thane, India) have announced an exclusive distribution agreement. The deal sees Labindia become the exclusive distributor for the gas chromatography (GC) portfolio of Dani Instruments within India.

	“Labindia is a great partner and we expect they will deliver a strong growth of our brand in this country,” said Massimiliano Saini Fasanotti, CEO of Dani Instruments SpA. He continued, “They have the scale, infrastructure, reputation, experience, and complementary product portfolio to make Dani a market leader in the Indian market. We are happy that Labindia recognized the quality, robustness, innovation, and breadth of our products.”

	Under the terms of the agreement, Labindia will distribute Dani products. There is also scope for the distribution agreement to be expanded with additional products in the near future.

	“Labindia is committed to provide its customers advanced chromatographic solutions,” said Shriram Bhalerao, Managing Director Labindia Instruments. “The Dani gas chromatographic portfolio includes unique solutions to address the most demanding customers’ needs. Dani’s portfolio is a perfect fit with our current offer in the analytical market,” added Shriram.

	Both companies hope that their combined reputation and experience as well as complementary product profiles can yield a prominent place within the Indian analytical chemistry market.

News

Dani Instruments SpA and Labindia Instruments Pvt Ltd have announced an exclusive distribution agreement.

Dani Instruments Announce Indian Distribution Agreement

	A new method for tuberculosis (TB) detection using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) has been developed.

 Using an established biomarker known as Lipoarabinomannan (LAM), researchers have simplified a previously validated method measuring the closely linked D-arabinose.

	According to the World Health Organization (WHO), in 2013, an estimated 9.0 million people developed TB with 1.5 million dying.2 A total of 360,000 of those were HIV positive, attesting to the close association of TB with HIV.

	Fortunately, TB is declining globally as a result of effective diagnosis and treatment. However, diagnosis relies on the demonstration of the bacteria responsible for TB, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). This is accomplished using microscopy, cultures, and molecular testing, a time-consuming and expensive procedure.

	TB remains unique among the major infectious diseases because it lacks an accurate and rapid point-of-care test. This is primarily the result of insufficient progress in biomarker discovery.

	In 2010 the WHO endorsed the Xpert MTB/RIF test for use in TB endemic countries.

 As a cartridge-based and automated diagnostic test, the Xpert MTB/RIF test represented a major milestone. The device identifies Mtb DNA and mutations associated with resistance to rifampicin (RIF) by nucleic acid amplification technique (NAAT).

	However, a reliable biomarker, if detectable on a simple, portable, and low cost platform, could greatly increase early detection, reducing not only disease morbidity but also transmission and support global TB control.

	Current commercial detection assays measure LAM in urine as a marker for TB but these exhibit poor sensitivity, especially in individuals with a healthy immune system. This new method isolates LAM and converts it into its constituent monosaccharides (that is, D-arabinose, D-mannose) before quantifying D-arabinose as a proxy for LAM, using GC–MS.

	Results indicated this method was effective and was successfully able to detect and measure urinary LAM in human clinical specimens by quantifying D-arabinose using chemical derivatization and GC–MS. Importantly this method was
	non-discriminatory, with no dependence on country of origin, HIV coâinfection, or BCG vaccination. - L.B.

(12) (2015) doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0144088

		WHO. Global Tuberculosis Report 2014. http://www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/en/WHO.2014	

		WHO. WHO endorses new rapid tuberculosis test 2010. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2010/tb_test_20101208/en/	

A new method for tuberculosis detection using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry has been developed.

Detecting Tuberculosis Using GC–MS

	Researchers from South Korea have investigated methods of reducing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) within cooked meat using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS).

 PAHs are formed during cooking and are derived from the incomplete combustion of organic matter; they have known mutagenic properties.

	Grilled, smoked, and roasted foods are increasingly popular both at home and in restaurants, however, many studies have identified an elevated health risk in these products as a result of the higher levels of PAHs found in such meats compared to meats prepared by other cooking methods.

	The exact chemical mechanisms of PAH creation are not precisely known. PAHs can be formed from pyrolysis of organic matter, such as fat, at temperatures above 200 °C or from smoke produced through the incomplete combustion of charcoal or open fires. The latter PAHs adhere to the surface of foods.

	The study focused on the four most carcinogenic PAHs (benzo[a]anthracene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, and benzo[a]pyrene) and tested different grilling methods and temperatures on two different meat samples (pork and beef). Samples were extracted, purified, and then analyzed using GC–MS.

	While using a standard grilling procedure the amount of fat initially present within the meat was linked to the formation of higher levels of PAHs. This was especially true for pork belly, which contained a high fat content of 26.4%.

	Significant reductions in PAHs were observed when meat drippings and smoke were removed with alternative grilling apparatus. The sum total of the four PAHs was reduced 48–89% when drippings were removed and 41–74% when smoke was removed.

	Smoke resulting from incomplete combustion of fat dripped onto open flames was the most important factor contributing to the production of PAHs during the grilling process.

	The study authors recommended the removal of meat drippings and optimization of the charcoal combustion as the best procedures for reducing PAH formation as well as the publication of official guidelines to increase public awareness. - L.B.

Researchers from South Korea have investigated methods of reducing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons within cooked meat using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry.

GC BBQ

The 40th International Symposium in Capillary Chromatography (ISCC) and 13th GC×GC Symposium will be held at the Palazzo dei Congressi, in Riva del Garda, Italy, from 29 May–3 June 2016.

	Over the years, the International Symposium on Capillary Chromatography (ISCC) has established its reputation as a forum for microcolumn separation techniques. Since the first meeting in Hindelang in 1975, the most important developments in capillary gas chromatography, microcolumn liquid chromatography, and electromigration techniques have been presented in this symposium series.

	The format and the atmosphere of the 40th meeting will be similar to previous meetings, this year with particular emphasis on mass spectrometry (MS). Past meetings have been held in Hindeleng, Riva del Garda, Monterey, Baltimore, Gifu, Kobe, Wintergreen, Park City, Las Vegas, Dalia, Albuquerque, Portland, and San Diego.

	This year the “Palazzo dei Congressi” in Riva del Garda, Italy, will accommodate the 40th meeting from 29 May–3 June 2016. The six-day event will feature recent findings from leading academic and industrial experts in the form of lectures and posters. Apart from the most recent advances in the fields of pressure and electrodriven microcolumn separation techniques, and comprehensive twoâdimensional gas chromatography (2D GC), this year particular emphasis will be directed to combinations of capillary chromatography with various forms of mass spectrometry (MS).

	The conference offers sessions on capillary GC, microcolumn liquid chromatography (LC), electromigration methods, and micro-fabricated analytical systems, which are expected to cover lab-on-a-chip, column technology, coupled and multidimensional techniques, comprehensive techniques, hyphenated techniques, sampling and sample preparation, trace analysis, and automation.

	Application sessions include environmental applications, energy/petrochemical/industrial applications, biomedical/pharmaceutical applications, and the analysis of natural products, food, flavours, and fragrances. Workshop seminars of instrument manufacturers and an extensive exhibition of instrumentation, accessories, and supplies will run in parallel to the scientific programme.

	At the meeting, the 2016 Marcel Golay Award sponsored by PerkinElmer will be presented in recognition of outstanding contributions in the field of separation science. The Leslie Ettre award, sponsored by PerkinElmer, will be presented to a young scientist for research on capillary GC applied to environmental or food analyses. The Giorgio Nota award, sponsored by Waters, will be presented to a scientist in recognition of a lifetime of achievement in capillary LC. The John Phillips Award, sponsored by LECO and Restek, will be awarded to individuals who have made outstanding contributions to the field of GC×GC analysis. The GC×GC Lifetime Achievement Award, sponsored by LECO and Restek, honours an experienced GC×GC scientist who has made significant contributions to the field.

	At the symposium CASSS and Chromaleont will promote scholarships for young researchers. For more information please visit www.chromaleont.it/iscc.

	To encourage scientific exchange and friendship building, the scientific programme will be enhanced with the well-known “Riva Social Programme”, which consists of a welcome reception, cocktail party, classical concert, wine and cheese evening, and farewell cocktails.

	Considering the interest in comprehensive techniques, the 13th GC×GC Symposium will be organized during the same period to allow scientists to attend both meetings. The 13th GC×GC Symposium will start on 29 May 2016 with a course presented by experts in the field covering the fundamental aspects of comprehensive techniques and a plenary session on 30 May 2016.

	For both meetings, abstracts for consideration as lecture or poster presentations can be submitted on-line at http://www.chromaleont.it/iscc. All abstracts will be reviewed on the basis of scientific merit, novelty, and practical application. Presenters at the meeting may also have their work published in a special volume of the Journal of Chromatography A.

40th International Symposium On Capillary Chromatography and the 13th GC×GC Symposium

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The 9th International Symposium on Packed Column SFC (SFC 2015) was held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA, on 22–24 July 2015. Selected highlights of both the oral and poster SFC 2015 programmes are reviewed in this synopsis.

	Supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) has long been used for chiral analysis in support of pharmaceutical development, but implementation of the technology in a regulated GMP production has its challenges. Daniel Markowitz from Johnson Matthey Pharmaceutical Material and Services (New Jersey, USA) presented benefits of this green alternative to conventional solvent-based crystallizations and low-pressure chromatography. The effects of injection loops, stacked injections, UV scaling, resin selection as well as solvent and CO

 recycle at the plant scale were discussed. A new system was described that contained two 20-cm columns in parallel.

	Jeffrey Kiplinger from Averica Discovery Services (Marlborough, Massachusetts, USA) reminded the audience that the only important criteria for adoption of a technology are economic. In this regard, batch-to-batch cross contamination and system clean-out protocols and alternative fractionation or collection design were considered. Direct measurement of economic impact can result in better instrument design and better planning for new technology implementation.

	Interest concerning various phenomena taking place in a column used for packed column SFC (pcSFC) separations continues to be relatively high. Don Poe of the University of Minnesota (Duluth, USA) discussed the Joule–Thompson coefficient as a criterion for efficient operating conditions in SFC using porous and superficially porous packings in a convective air environment. The efficiency for elution of 

-alkylbenzenes on 250-mm x 4.6-mm i.d. columns packed with 5-μm fully porous and superficially porous particles at optimum flow rates in a convective oven at 20 oC to 60 oC to 80 oC and pressures from 90 bar to 250 bar, with CO

 mobile phase containing 5%, 10%, and 20% methanol (v/v) was measured.

	In a separate study, Ruben De Pauw from the Virje Universiteit Brussel (Belgium) identified and quantified the different contributions to extra-column band broadening in pcSFC, such as the influence of sample solvent, injection volume, extra-column volumes, and detector cell volume or design. Abhijit Tarafder from Waters Inc. (Milford, Massachusetts, USA) investigated how density gradient along a packed SFC column affects the overload band profiles of preparative SFC. A computer program that simulates changes in overloaded peak shapes as a function of density gradient at a given operating condition was used. Tarafder considered if having a steep density gradient in preparative SFC is always deleterious as in analytical situations, or if there could there be some advantage in having density gradients in prep-SFC.

	Both Don Poe and Abhijit Tarafder preceded their technological presentations with a personal tribute to Professor Georges Guiochon formerly of the University of Tennessee (Knoxville, Tennessee, USA) with whom many manuscripts concerning pcSFC had been co-authored within the past five years.

	The increasing demand for shortening development timelines in the pharmaceutical industry has made throughput analysis techniques very popular. Mohammad Al-Sayah from Genentech Inc. (South San Francisco, California, USA) described the development of an on-line two-dimensional chromatographic system utilizing reversed-phase liquid chromatography (LC) in the first dimension and SFC in the second dimension. The 2D LC–SFC system could achieve simultaneous achiral and chiral analysis of pharmaceutical compounds. The peaks of interest from the first reversed-phase LC dimension column were effectively focused as sharp concentration pulses on a small volume C18 trapping column and then injected onto the second dimension chiral pcSFC column. Full automation of the system was achieved.

	Christine Aurigemma from Pfizer Inc. (San Diego, California, USA) discussed early efforts to implement open access analytical pcSFC–LC in the medicinal chemistry laboratory that would allow chemists to work more efficiently. Adapting the technology to align with the work habits of chemists will be a key factor in facilitating the adoption of SFC to boost chemist productivity and efficiency. 

	Daniel Armstrong of the University of Texas at Arlington (Arlington, Texas, USA) provided a lucid discussion of recent directions in pcSFC concerning chiral separations including new chiral selectors and small particle diameter column packings that will have a significant impact on the field. Another presentation by Vincent Desfontaine of the University of Geneva (Geneva, Switzerland) focused on the evaluation of new stationary phase chemistries in sub-2-µm and core–shell material for the analysis of basic compounds in SFC. Various representative sets of basic drugs were injected such as mixes of active pharmaceutical ingredients with their respective pharmacopoeia impurities. Different analytical conditions were also compared such as absence of additive, additive in the mobile phase, and additive in the injection solvent.

	A lecture by Oleg Pokrovsky from the Kurnakov Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry (Russia) concentrated on stationary phases where the separation of closely related compounds was not based on hydrogen bonding. In these instances the separation required involvement of other types of interaction such as electrostatic, dipole-induced dipole, or dispersion. A survey of several cases of non-hydrogen-bonding-driven separations of closely related compounds was considered such as xylenes, dichloroanilines, and methoxy-derivatives of psoralen. All 

-substituted compounds eluted earlier than “

-free” isomers. A distinctly stronger retention of 3,4-dichloroaniline compared with 3,5- and other isomers confirmed the significance of dipole–dipole and other electrostatic intermolecular interactions in the separation of this model compound. Standard column screening revealed that no achiral column was able to separate 

-xylene in pcSFC except porous graphitic carbon (PGC), which suggested that PGC differs substantially from both hydrogen bonding and non-hydrogen bonding silica-based phases in the elution order of dichloroanilines.

	Polysaccharide-based chiral stationary phases (CSPs) are well recognized as a powerful tool in chiral separation. To clarify the potential and selectivity feature of these phases in achiral separations, Tohru Shibata and associates from Daicel Corp. (Japan) have systematically studied achiral isomer separations with polysaccharide-based phases under both high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and SFC conditions. The retention under both conditions roughly correlated, but inversion of elution order between isomers was sometimes observed. Nevertheless, these CSPs exhibited excellent potential for achiral separations and analysis in pcSFC as well as HPLC.

	The cannabis industry is one of the fastest growing industries in the United States. Christopher Hudalla from ProVerde Laboratories Inc. (Milford, Massachusetts, USA) presented the development of a workflow based on supercritical fluid technologies for the analysis, extraction, and purification of cannabinoids for the preparation of cannabis-based therapeutics. Complementing this presentation was the lecture of Ira Lurie from George Washington University (Washington, DC, USA) entitled ultrahigh performance SFC for the analysis of synthetic cannabinoids. Presently there are over 20 synthetic cannabinoids under permanent or temporary federal control in the U.S. The effects of co-solvents, additives, pressure, temperature, and gradient slope on optimizing the separation were presented.

	Productivity of modern medicinal chemistry requires instrumentation for automated synthesis and high throughput purification that can process a large number of samples within a meaningful timeframe. Gerard Rosse from Dart Neuroscience LLC (San Diego, California, USA) discussed the decision-making process for selecting pcSFC coupled to mass spectrometry (MS) as the prevailing method for compound purification. Instrumentation for analytical and preparative SFC–MS, infrastructure, logistics, workflows, and robotics to support the purification of >10,000 compounds each month was presented.

	The application of SFC for chiral metabolite separations in a DMPK environment was discussed by Hermes Licea Perez from GlaxoSmithKline (King of Prussia, Pennsylvania, USA). A complex mixture of 14 stereoisomeric metabolites provided important data on which species circulate in the human body. pcSFC in combination with chemical derivatization was proven superior for the separation of four diastero-isomeric species of another drug development compound. The method was fully validated and applied to evaluate potential 

 chiral conversion in pooled clinical and pre-clinical samples.

	Implementation of SFC in regulated GMP laboratories has been somewhat slow, owing to limitations in instrument sensitivity, reproducibility, accuracy, and robustness. Michael Hicks from Merck Inc. (Rahway, New Jersey, USA) reported on an investigation into the use of modern pcSFC for enantio-purity analysis of several pharmaceutical intermediates and compared the results with conventional HPLC approaches historically used for analysis in a GMP setting. The findings clearly illustrated that modern pcSFC now exhibits a degree of precision, reproducibility, accuracy, and robustness comparable to that of HPLC.

	Alexandre Grand-Guillaume Perenoud of the University of Geneva (Switzerland) focused on the evaluation of a modern pcSFC–HRMS (quadrupole-time-of-flight [QTOF]) platform as a potential key analytical tool to support bioactive identification. The preliminary screening step involved 15 different state-of-the-art stationary phases and over 100 natural compound standards. The author highlighted the applicability of SFC to the natural compound space, which included highly polar and very apolar molecules. In parallel, selected column chemistries have been identified as particularly well suited for the analysis of specific compound sub-classes. Finally, optimized analytical conditions were applied for the full characterization of several plant extracts.

	Edgar Naegele from Agilent Technologies (Germany) lectured on the quantitative determination of multi-pesticide residues in vegetables by pcSFC coupled to triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. The final optimized method was performed on an amino column at a flow rate of 3 mL/min in a gradient with methanol as the organic modifier. The multi-pesticide sample comprised 17 pesticide compounds. For all compounds, the achieved linearity was better than 0.999, limits of quantification (LOQs) were typically below 2.9 ppm, retention time relative standard deviations (RSDs) were below 0.4%, and area RSDs were below 4%. Matrix effects were found in the recovery range of 70–120% and LOQs were at 10 ppb, which met typical requirements for quantitative determination of pesticides in a food matrix.

	To minimize internal corrosion of carbon steel, chemical corrosion inhibitors are most frequently used. These materials are amine-based and as such exhibit high toxicity to aquatic organisms, hence stricter regulations have been imposed regarding the use and subsequent discharge of such chemicals in the environment through produced water. John Langley of the University of Southampton (Southampton, UK) reported on the preparation of a model corrosion inhibitor comprising quaternary amines, imidazolines, and imazolines for qualitative analysis using HPLC–MS and ultrahigh-performance SFC–MS (UHPSFC–MS). Use of modern pcSFC as the chromatographic separation decreased analysis times by eliminating the sample preparation step prior to analysis, especially in the case of crude oil, and reduced elution times by a factor of four when compared with HPLC.

	Robert Campbell from Dow Chemical Company (Midland, Michigan, USA) noted further applications in a study of the composition of co-polymeric surfactant materials via pcSFC–MS with electrospray ionization. Frequently the spectra and chromatograms are too complex for interpretation with acceptable degrees of confidence. Software-assisted characterization has been used for deconvolution of the complex data sets. Factors such as adduct formation, multiple charging, and the degree of ionization were shown to complicate spectral interpretation. The resulting data analysis made possible the elucidation of detailed structural information with a high degree of confidence.

	The FDA requires that at least 97% of caffeine be removed in order to call the product decaffeinated coffee. Supercritical carbon dioxide is an ideal fluid to apply to this process. Extraction is always performed on the green beans. Dried green beans are quite hard and dense so a wetting process, causing some swelling of the beans, is necessary before supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) can be performed. John Langley from Waters Corp. (Milford, Massachusetts, USA) demonstrated various extraction techniques as well as a method for the rapid and convenient determination of residual caffeine levels using SFC.

	The subject of this year’s wining poster dealt with SFE. Jacquelyn Runco from Waters Inc. (Milford, Massachusetts, USA) demonstrated an SFE–SFC workflow to isolate target flavour compounds from vanilla beans and ground cinnamon. The use of automated processes such as solvent selection, mobile phase composition, and vessel switching allowed for quick extraction method screening. For both samples, multiple extraction parameters were evaluated to determine optimal yield and extract complexity. 

	The award for second place best poster presentation went to Takato Uchikata from Shimadzu Corp. (Kyoto, Japan) for extraction and analysis using on-line SFC–SFE–MS. The hyphenated system was capable of simultaneous multicomponent analysis with on-line automation of everything from sample pretreatment to separation and analysis. For example, in the analysis of pesticides in food products, the system took only five minutes for a complete analysis involving sample pre-treatment when compared with at least 35 min for conventional systems. Additional applications included the analysis of biomarkers from dried blood spots and extraction of trace additives in polymers.

	A one-day SFC conference will be held in San Diego on 23 May 2016. SFC 2016 will be held in Vienna, Austria, on 5–7 October 2016. Oral and poster presentations will be solicited in the areas of SFC and SFE in Spring 2016. Information on both conferences can be found at www.greenchemistrygroup.org.

 is emeritus professor of chemistry at Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA, programme co-chair for SFC 2015/2016, and member of the Green Chemistry Group.

The Column-03-24-2016