Love it or hate it, cheese is everywhere in western diets, but have you ever wondered when cheese production began? 

The earliest evidence of prehistoric cheesemaking in Northern Europe has been published by an international team of researchers, headed by scientists at the University of Bristol (Bristol, UK). Published in Nature,

 the study puts forward a convincing case placing the origins of cheese production in the 6th millennium BC. The study could be key to unlocking the mystery of when humans began to develop dairy tolerance. 

Milk products are a relatively new addition to the human diet, as genetic evidence suggests that prehistoric man lacked the capability to digest lactose. Over the last 10,000 years the human digestive system has developed and with it our ability to digest milk without becoming extremely ill. It is thought that this occurred gradually with the increased domestication of plants and cattle.

In times of food shortages and harsh winters, milk would have been readily available from dairy cattle. The discovery of sieve-like artifacts from Neolithic archeological sites throughout northern Europe have supported a hypothesis formulated decades ago that cheese was produced by prehistoric man.

Peter Bogucki, co-author and supporter of the cheese production hypothesis, states that in his opinion cheese production would have allowed a reduction in the lactose content of milk, thereby enabling consumption of the dairy product without becoming ill.

Archeological theory suggests that Neolithic communities were the first farming settlements. Throughout the years, sieve-like artifacts have been collected from Neolithic archeological sites throughout northern Europe with suggested uses ranging from straining honey from honeycomb to covering fires. 

This team chose to chemically analyse sieves excavated from Neolithic Linear Pottery settlements in the Kuyavia region of Poland. Using chromatographic [gas chromatography (GC)], spectrometric [gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS)] and isotopic [GC–combustion–isotope ratio MS (GC–C–IRMS)] techniques, they found evidence for the use of sieves in cheese production. 

High levels of lipids associated with dairy fats (and bacteria found in the stomachs of ruminants) were found trapped within the fabric of the 50 ceramic fragments predicted to have originated from 34 sieves — good evidence that the sieves were used to strain dairy products. In addition, chemical analysis of other non‑pierced vessels at the site indicated the presence of beeswax; a potential method of waterproofing pottery for milk storage.

Mélanie Salque, PhD student and co‑author of the study, said: “The presence of milk residues in sieves (which look like modern cheese‑strainers) constitutes the earliest direct evidence for cheesemaking. So far, early evidence for cheesemaking were mostly iconographic, that is to say murals showing milk processing, which dates to several millennia later than the cheese strainers.”

M. Salque, P. Bogucki, P. Pyzel, I. Sobkowiak‑Tabaka, R. Grygiel, M. Szmyt and R. Evershed, Nature, DOI: 10.1038/nature11698 (2012).

S. Schaffner & P. Sabeti, Nature Education 1(1) (www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/evolutionary-adaption-in-the-human-lineage-12397) (2008).

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Love it or hate it, cheese is everywhere in western diets, but have you ever wondered when cheese production began?

Prehistoric cheese

Sigma approaches are used to reduce variations and improve quality when performing chromatographic procedures. The terminology of this approach is introduced, together with illustrative examples and suggestions. Although this “Sigma” methodology was originally developed for industrial use or in factory environments, it is increasingly being used in analytical laboratories — most notably in pharmaceutical companies. An earlier article in 

 described how to achieve reductions in wastes (“Lean”) that can occur in chromatographic operations.

Sigma approaches are used to reduce variations and improve quality when performing chromatographic procedures. The terminology of this approach is introduced, together with illustrative examples and suggestions.

"Sigma" Approaches to Maintain Quality and Reduce Variations when Performing Chromatography Analysis

A team of scientists at the University of Regensburg (Regensburg, Germany) has discovered a microbial defence method used by emerald cockroach wasp 

 larvae to prevent its food source, the cockroach, from putrefying.

Food spoilage is a worldwide problem faced by insects and humans alike. Microbes produce toxins that degrade food and make it unpleasant to eat; and in the worst case scenario can cause serious diseases. Scientists believe that inspiration for new food hygiene strategies could be taken from studying the microbial defence strategies of insects. 

Lead author, Dr Gudren Herzner (University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany), told The Column: “the most promising study species for such investigations are those that have close contact to microbe-rich environments or food sources”. The emerald cockroach wasp was chosen as a good study species because of its dependence on cockroaches as larval food. 

The method that the emerald cockroach wasp “infects” its cockroach host is well studied. It stings the target twice: once to immobilize the cockroach, allowing the wasp to drag it to a “safe” location; the second sting is to the brain, rendering it sluggish and zombie-like. The wasp then “glues” an egg to the cockroach where it incubates for seven days. Following its incubation, the larva moves into the interior of the roach using the internal organs as a food source, until the death of the host.

Most people think of cockroaches as carriers of microbes and disease — not the ideal host or food source!

So the question was: How were the larvae able to defend their food source against other micro-organisms given that they were eating their host from the inside out?

The answer was presented during behavioural studies of the larvae. They observed the repeated deposition of a clear fluid by the larvae into the interior of the cockroach, and speculated that this could be the key.

Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) were performed to identify two major compounds within the fluid. For a greater sample volume, hexane extracts of roaches parasitized by the larvae were purified and fractionated by size-exclusion–high performance liquid chromatography (SE–HPLC) and analysed by GC–MS. The two compounds were identified to be (R)–(–)–mellein and micromolide.

Herzner said: “The antimicrobial defence strategies of insects have continuously been tested and refined by selective forces during evolution, and I think that we can learn a lot from Mother Nature. Studies like ours show how insects deal with these hazards and are not only scientifically very intriguing but also may, in the long term, provide inspirations for new applications.”

G. Herzner et al. PNAS Early Edition, (www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1213384110) (2012).

A team of scientists at the University of Regensburg (Regensburg, Germany) has discovered a microbial defence method used by emerald cockroach wasp (Ampulex compresa F.) larvae to prevent its food source, the cockroach, from putrefying.1

Cockroaches could help human hygiene

Market Profile: Ion Chromatography

 spoke to Janie Dubois, Laboratory Programme Manager at the International Food Safety Training Laboratory (IFSTL), about the training programme to boost the standard of food analysis to comply with internationally recognized food safety standards and US regulations.  

The Column spoke to Janie Dubois, Laboratory Programme Manager at the International Food Safety Training Laboratory (IFSTL), about the training programme to boost the standard of food analysis to comply with internationally recognized food safety standards and US regulations.

Upping the Ante: Food Safety Training

The requirements for GPC/SEC data analysis to obtain precise, reproducible and accurate results are very specialized. Therefore, often dedicated software tools offering flow-rate correction or different calibration options need to be employed. This instalment of Tips & Tricks looks at these requirements.

The Column-02-04-2013

Prehistoric cheese

"Sigma" Approaches to Maintain Quality and Reduce Variations when Performing Chromatography Analysis

Cockroaches could help human hygiene

Market Profile: Ion Chromatography

Upping the Ante: Food Safety Training

Tips and Tricks: GPC/SEC Dos and Don'ts For Data Analysis