HS-GC-IMS Analysis of Low-Protein Cookies

Low-protein foods play an important role in helping people manage chronic kidney disease and certain inherited metabolic disorders through their diet. Researchers baked low-protein cookies using low-protein flour meant for steamed buns, then looked at how different recipe choices and oven temperatures affected the cookies' physical and chemical properties, testing one factor at a time to see what mattered most. The volatile organic compounds (VOCs) of the LPCs were analyzed using headspace-gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (HS-GC-IMS). A paper based on this research was published in the journal Food Science & Nutrition.¹

What are Low-Protein Foods, and Why Do They Matter?

Low-protein foods are simply foods made to have less protein than usual. They're essential for people with certain special health conditions, like inherited disorders affecting how the body processes amino acids or organic acids, as well as chronic kidney disease.^2-4 For these patients, low-protein foods aren't just a temporary fix—they're something they need to eat for life.^4,5 Because of this, both doctors and food scientists have taken a strong interest in developing better low-protein food options.¹

How Were These Low-Protein Cookies Made?

The low-protein cookies studied in this research were made mainly from low-protein flour designed for steamed buns. The recipe combined 20 g of this with water (0.25 g per gram of flour), corn oil (rather than fish oil; 0.4 g per gram of flour), sugar (0.15 g per gram of flour), and 0.1 g of salt, all mixed and kneaded into a dough.¹

What Did the Researchers Find About How Ingredients and Baking Temperature Affect theQuality of Low-Protein Cookies?

The researchers reported that both the recipe ingredients and the baking temperature (100 °C - 200 °C) mattered in the making good low-protein cookies. Combining fish oil and corn oil worked especially well together, making both the raw dough and the finished cookies firmer and crisper. Baking at moderate temperatures (120 °C -160 °C) gave the best results. As the oven temperature went up from 100 °C to 160° C, the cookies got harder and crisper; between 160 °C and 170 °C they stayed about the same; and above that, from 170 °C to 200 °C, they became softer again. When stored at a warm, accelerated-aging temperature of 57 °C, all the cookies, no matter what temperature they were baked at, lost some of their reddish color over time. How well the texture and taste held up during storage depended on both the baking temperature used and how long they were stored. In simulated digestion tests, cookies baked at higher temperatures released more free fatty acids (between 8.6% and 18.9% after two hours in the small intestine stage). Cookies baked at 160 °C, specifically, had a protein content of about 0.27 grams per 100 grams.¹

“This work,” wrote the authors of the paper,¹ “provided useful information to understand the effects of composition and baking temperature on the properties of low-protein foods.”

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References

1. Shi, C.; Zi, Y.; Liu, Z. et al. Effects of Composition and Baking Temperature on the Properties of Low-Protein Cookies. Food Sci Nutr. 2026, 14 (7), e72069. DOI: 10.1002/fsn3.72069
2. Handoom, B.; Megdad, E.; Al-Qasabi, D. et al. The Effects of Low Protein Products Availability on Growth Parameters and Metabolic Control in Selected Amino Acid Metabolism Disorders Patients. Int J Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2018, 5 (2), 60-68. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpam.2018.04.001
3. Zhang, X. L.; Zhang, M.; Lei, N. et al. An Investigation of Low-Protein Diets' Qualification Rates and an Analysis of Their Short-Term Effects for Patients with CKD Stages 3-5: A Single-Center Retrospective Cohort Study from China. Int Urol Nephrol. 2023, 55 (4), 1059-1070. DOI: 10.1007/s11255-022-03390-3
4. Garcia-Arenas, D.; Barrau-Martinez, B.; Gonzalez-Rodriguez, A. et al. Effect of Special Low-Protein Foods Consumption in the Dietary Pattern and Biochemical Profile of Patients with Inborn Errors of Protein Metabolism: Application of a Database of Special Low-Protein Foods. Nutrients 2023, 15 (15), 3475. DOI: 10.3390/nu15153475
5. Ziadlou, M.; MacDonald, A. Assessing the Nutritional Value and Health Risks of Special Low‑Protein Foods: Narrative Review. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2026, 21 (1), 87. DOI: 10.1186/s13023-026-04266-w